Rspress

# #Quantization Accuracy Tuning Guide

## #Background

### #Quantization Error

The standard symmetric quantization formula is q u a n t i z e d=c l a m p(r o u n d(f l o a t s c a l e),q m i n,q m a x)quantized = clamp(round(\frac{float}{scale}), qmin, qmax)q u an t i ze d=c l am p(ro u n d(sc a l e f l o a t​),q min,q ma x), the errors mainly come from:

1. Rounding Error introduced by rounding operation. For example, when using int8 quantization with a scale of 0.0078, the floating point value of 0.0157 corresponds to a quantized value of round(0.0157 / 0.0078) = round(2.0128) = 2, and the floating point value of 0.0185 corresponds to a quantized value of round(0.0185 / 0.0078) = round(2.3718) = 2. Due to the rounding error, their quantized values are the same.

2. Truncation Error introduced by clamping operation. When qmax * scale cannot cover the range of values that need to be quantized, large truncation errors may occur. For example, when using int8 quantization with a scale of 0.0078, qmax * scale = 127 * 0.0078 = 0.9906, and any value larger than 0.9906 will be truncated to 127.

Quantization will inevitably introduce errors, but the impact of these errors on model accuracy can vary for the following reasons:

1. Some outliers may have large truncation errors but have little impact on the model.

2. Different operators have varying sensitivities to errors. For example, operators like sigmoid and softmax are more tolerant of errors in a specific input domain, while operators like top-k and sort are highly sensitive to errors.

3. Models tend to be robust and generalizable. Small errors can be viewed as a form of regularization during training.

Attention

Due to these reasons, the impact of quantization errors on model accuracy should not be evaluated by observing single-operator quantization error alone. The focus should be on how single-operator quantization affects the entire model output, with the single-operator error serving as a secondary reference. The entire accuracy tuning process should primarily observe the impact of quantization on the whole model output, while adjusting quantization configurations to reduce truncation and rounding errors.

### #Reduce Quantization Error

1. For Rounding Errors: A smaller scale can be used to reduce the range of floating-point values corresponding to each quantized value. However, directly reducing the scale will increase truncation errors. Therefore, a common approach is to use a higher precision data type (e.g., switching from int8 to int16). Since the range of quantized values increases, the scale can be reduced.

2. For Truncation Errors: A larger scale can help reduce truncation errors. The scale is generally determined through statistical methods used by quantization tools. Small-scale values are often due to insufficient calibration data or incorrect calibration methods, leading to unreasonable scale statistics. For instance, if the theoretical input range is [-1, 1], but during calibration or quantization-aware training, the maximum value of 1 or minimum value of -1 is not observed, or the occurrence of such samples is too few. To address this, more data should be added, or a fixed scale should be manually set based on the numerical range. When truncation errors are not significant, calibration parameters can be adjusted, and different calibration methods and hyperparameters can be used to alleviate truncation errors.

### #Quantization Accuracy Tuning

Quantization accuracy tuning involves two aspects:

1. Model structure and quantization configuration check. The main purpose is to avoid non-tuning issues affecting quantization accuracy, such as incorrect qconfig settings or using shared modules which are not quantization-friendly.

2. Mixed precision tuning. Start with a model using high precision operators to quickly achieve the desired accuracy, establishing the upper bound of accuracy and lower bound of performance. Then, use accuracy tuning tools to analyze and adjust quantization configurations to obtain a model that balances accuracy and performance.

Attention

Before performing the following precision tuning, you need to first verify the correctness of your pipeline.

## #Model Structure and Quantization Configuration Check

After preparing the model, first check for quantization configuration errors and model structures which are not quantization-friendly. You can use the check_qat_model interface in the debug tools. Please refer to Accuracy Tuning Tool Guide for interface usage.

Attention

check_qat_model is integrated into the prepare interface, and you can directly view the model_check_result.txt in the running directory.

### #Operator Fusion

Check if there are modules in the model that can be fused but are not. When deploying the model on BPU, operators like conv, bn, add, and relu will be fused. In a QAT model, these operators will be replaced with a single module to avoid inserting fake quantization nodes. If these operators are not fused, additional quantization nodes will be inserted, potentially causing slight impacts on accuracy and performance. The following example shows that conv and relu are not fused.

`Fusable modules are listed below: name type ------ ----------------------------------------------------- conv <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv2d.Conv2d'> relu <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.relu.ReLU'>`

Possible causes and solutions for operator fusion errors in different prepare methods:

1. PrepareMethod.JIT and PrepareMethod.JIT_STRIP:

   a. Operator fusion in dynamic code blocks requires marking with dynamic_block.

   b. Code with varying call counts were only executed once during tracing. Use inputs which make the code execute multiple times as example_inputs.

2. PrepareMethod.EAGER: Missing or incorrect fuse operations. You need to check and fix the handwritten fuse logic.

### #Shared Modules

Since the horizon_plugin_pytorch inserts quantization nodes by module replacement, only one set of quantization information can be collected for each module. When a module is called multiple times with significantly different output data distributions, using the same set of quantization parameters will cause large errors, and the shared module needs to be copied. If the output data distribution of multiple calls is not significantly different, the shared module does not need to be copied. Here, we explain the concept of shared modules, which will help decide whether to copy shared modules during layer-by-layer comparison.

The difference of three common-understanding "shared modules":

A. A module followed by multiple modules. Module A is considered shared, but here module A is only called once, and the output data distribution is not different, so it does not affect quantization accuracy and will not be reflected in the call count check.

B. A module is called multiple times, but the output data distribution are similar. Although this can be seen in the call count check, it has little impact on quantization accuracy and does not need modification.

C. A module is called multiple times, with significantly different output distributions each time. This will be reflected in the call count check and significantly impacts quantization accuracy, requiring manual splitting.

In model_check_result.txt, you can see the call count of each module. Normally, each op is called only once. Zero means it is not called, and more than one indicates multiple calls. In the following example, conv is a shared module.

`Each module called times: name called times ------- -------------- conv 2 quant 1 dequant 1 # Corresponding code # def forward(self, x): # x = self.quant(x) # x = self.conv(x) # x = self.conv(x) # x = self.dequant(x) # return x`

### #QConfig Configuration Errors

Using qconfig incorrectly can cause the model to quantize in unexpected ways, resulting in low accuracy (e.g. mixing template and qconfig attribute settings). Here, we mainly check if the input and output of each operator meet expectations by looking at model_check_result.txt:

1. Whether the dtype matches the settings.

2. Whether high precision output is enabled.

`Each layer out qconfig: +---------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------------------+ | Module Name | Module Type | Input dtype | out dtype | ch_axis | observer | |---------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------------------| | quant | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.QuantStub'> | torch.float32 | qint8 | -1 | MovingAverageMinMaxObserver | | conv | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv2d.Conv2d'> | qint8 | qint8 | -1 | MovingAverageMinMaxObserver | | relu | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.relu.ReLU'> | qint8 | qint8 | qconfig = None | | | dequant | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.DeQuantStub'> | qint8 | torch.float32 | qconfig = None | | +---------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------------------+ # This check result shows that all modules are int8 quantized. If you configured int16, it means the configuration did not take effect, and you need to check the usage of qconfig. Weight qconfig: +---------------+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------+-----------+---------------------------------------+ | Module Name | Module Type | weight dtype | ch_axis | observer | |---------------+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------+-----------+---------------------------------------| | conv | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv2d.Conv2d'> | qint8 | 0 | MovingAveragePerChannelMinMaxObserver | +---------------+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------+-----------+---------------------------------------+`

In addition, the model_check_result.txt file will also contain prompts for abnormal qconfig (if any abnormal qconfig exists). The content here includes the qconfig settings identified by the tool that require your further check. You need to verify whether they meet expectations in combination with the actual scenario, as they are not necessarily errors. For example, regarding the prompts related to Fixed scale listed below, you should check whether the fixed scale setting for that layer meets expectations.

`Please check if these OPs qconfigs are expected.. +-----------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Module Name | Module Type | Msg | |-----------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------| | sub[sub] | <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.functional_modules.FloatFunctional'> | Fixed scale 3.0517578125e-05 | +-----------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+`

## #S100/S100P Mixed Precision Tuning

### #Tuning Pipeline

The entire pipeline first involves all-int16 accuracy tuning to confirm the model's upper bound of accuracy and check for tool usage issues or quantization-unfriendly modules.

1. After confirming that all-int16 accuracy meets the requirements, perform all-int8 accuracy tuning. If the accuracy is not good enough, perform int8/int16 mixed precision tuning. Starting with an all-int8 model, gradually increase the proportion of int16 operators, balancing accuracy and performance.

2. If all-int16 accuracy does not meet the requirements, perform int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning. Ideally, int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning can solve all accuracy problems. Based on this, perform int8/int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning, fixing all fp16 operator configurations, and adjust the proportion of int16 operators as described in step 1.

### #Basic Tuning Methods

The goal of the basic tuning means is fast iteration, and in full int16 accuracy tuning and full int8 accuracy tuning, the model is just an intermediate state for fast iteration, and generally only the basic tuning means are used. While pursuing the use of fewer high-precision operators in mixed-precision tuning, it is necessary to decide whether to use more complex advanced tuning means according to the accuracy demand, which will bring more trial-and-error and iterative costs, but the accuracy and performance of the model can be tuned better.

#### #Calibration

1. Adjust calibration steps. The more calibration data, the better. However, due to the marginal effect, when the data volume reaches a certain level, the improvement in accuracy will be very limited. If the training set is small, use it all for calibration. If the training set is large, select a subset for calibration to balance time and accuracy. It's recommended to perform at least 10 to 100 steps of calibration.

2. Adjust batch size. Generally, a larger batch size is preferable. However, if the data is noisy or the model has many outliers, it may be necessary to reduce the batch size.

3. Use inference stage preprocessing with training data for calibration. Calibration data should reflect the real distribution and can use data augmentation methods like flipping, but avoid using augmentation methods that destory the real distribution, such as rotation and mosaic.

#### #QAT

1. Adjust learning rate.

   a. Initial Learning Rate: Disable warmup and learning rate decay strategies. Use different fixed learning rates (e.g., 1e-3, 1e-4, etc.) to fine-tune for a few steps and select the learning rate with best accuracy. If the floating-point model uses different learning rates for different modules, replicate this in QAT.

   b. Scheduler: Align the learning rate decay strategy with the floating-point model's but ensure no warmup strategies are used. For example, if the learning rate decay strategy of floating-point training is cosine annealing, then QAT should also use cosine annealing.

2. Experiment with fixing or updating input/output scales. When the accuracy of calibration model is good, fixing the input/output scale for QAT training can achieve better results. Otherwise, do not fix the scales. Both of the two strategies need to be tested as there are no definitive metrics to guide it.

3. Training steps. Generally, QAT training steps should not exceed 20% of the floating-point training steps. Adjust training steps based on training loss and evaluation results.

Special considerations:

1. Apart from the specific adjustments mentioned above, ensure all other QAT training configurations align with the floating-point training.

2. If the floating-point training uses freeze BN trick, set the QAT mode to WithBN.

`from horizon_plugin_pytorch.qat_mode import QATMode, set_qat_mode set_qat_mode(QATMode.WithBN)`
Attention

If accuracy issues arise despite tuning, such as non-converging loss or NaNs, please check with following steps:

1. Remove prepare function and use the QAT pipeline to finetune the floating-point model to rule out issues with the training pipeline.

2. Disable fake quantization during QAT training to exclude potential issues with the quantization tool. The accuracy of the QAT model should be almost identical to that of the finetuned floating-point model.

`from horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization import set_fake_quantize, FakeQuantState # It is equally applicable for troubleshooting calibration precision issues. set_fake_quantize(model, FakeQuantState._FLOAT)`

3. Set the learning rate to 0 during QAT training to rule out issues with improper parameter adjustments. The accuracy of the QAT model should be nearly identical to the accuracy of calibration model.

### #Advanced Tuning Methods

Advanced tuning methods typically require a significant amount of time for repeated trials, so they are recommended for use when high precision is required. The following approaches can be used for advanced tuning.

#### #Setting Fixed Scale

Some parts of the model may require fixed scales due to difficulty in determining the optimal quantization scale through statistics. Common situations requiring fixed scales include operators with known output ranges.

For example: If input data represents speed in km/h with a range of [0, 200], the quantstub output range is fixed, and the scale should be set to 200 divided by the quantization range. This is because quantization scale values are obtained based on statistical methods, and in normal calibration data, it is difficult to ensure that every sample reaches the boundary case, and statistical methods use sliding averages in order to eliminate outliers, resulting in quantization ranges that are smaller than the actual values. In the example above where the input data is speed, if you don't set fixed scale, then the maximum speed that is counted may be the average speed of most vehicles, resulting in a large loss of accuracy in the input for all samples exceeding this speed. It may be difficult for you to recognize all the cases where fixed scale is needed here, but it will be easy to find such problems in the layer-by-layer comparison step of the accuracy debug.

In the case below, the value range of input a and b is determined, and the value range of input c is uncertain. Except for quantstub_c and the last add, all other operators need to set fixed scale.

#### #Calibration

Experiment with different calibration methods. The plugin supports various methods, including min max, percentile, kl, mse, and mix. For tuning experiences, refer to the calibration guide.

#### #QAT

1. Adjust weight decay. Weight decay impacts the range of weight values. Smaller range means more quantization-friendly. Adjust weight decay during both floating-point and QAT phases if necessary.

2. Adjust data augmentation. Quantized models have lower learning capabilities compared to floating-point models. Strong data augmentation may hinder QAT model convergence, so it's generally advisable to moderate the augmentation.

### #Partial Quantization

Besides the tuning methods mentioned above, partial quantization can also be used to locate precision issues. It is recommended to use partial quantization only when all other tuning methods don't work.

By disabling fake quantization on certain parts of the model, comparing the model precision with fake quantization enabled and disabled, you can identify whether these parts have quantization issues. An approach like binary search can be used to narrow down the scope and precisely locate the issue.

For float computations, comparing the model precision with fake cast enabled and disabled is also an effective way to identify issues.

`from horizon_plugin_pytorch.utils.quant_switch import GlobalFakeQuantSwitch # Example of disabling quantization on the head class Model(nn.Module): def _init_(...): def forward(self, x): x = self.quant(x) x = self.backbone(x) x = self.neck(x) GlobalFakeQuantSwitch.disable() # Disable fake quantization FakeCast.disable() # Disable fake cast x = self.head(x) GlobalFakeQuantSwitch.enable() # Enable fake quantization FakeCast.enable() # Enable fake cast return self.dequant(x)`

### #INT8/INT16 & INT16/FP16 Mixed Precision Tuning

The basic idea of mixed precision tuning is to incrementally introduce higher precision operators into a lower precision model until the desired accuracy is achieved. For int8/int16 tuning, start with an all-int8 model and incrementally increase the number of int16 operators. For int16/FP16 tuning, start with an all-int16 model and incrementally increase the number of FP16 operators.

The calibration and QAT tuning in the figure above can reference both Basic Tuning Methods and Advanced Tuning Methods sections. Increasing the number of high-precision operators for int16/fp16 relies on a series of debug results produced by accuracy debugging tools.

QAT accuracy debugging is entirely based on the comparison between the floating-point model and the calibration model. Generally, it is not recommended to compare the floating-point model with the QAT model directly, as they become incomparable after QAT training. Please refer to Accuracy Tuning Tool Guide for background information. First, provide a dataset to find bad cases with significant calibration error, then compare layer-by-layer and calculate quantization sensitivity based on these bad cases.

#### #Find Badcase

All accuracy debugging operations are based on bad cases. You need to provide a sample set with low quantization accuracy. This process will traverse the sample set and compare the output error of each sample in the floating-point model and the calibration model. Generally, you do not need to provide an error measurement function.

Attention

Start from finding bad cases, models need to include some post-processing logic (removing or replacing parts of the original post-processing logic that make the model outputs completely incomparable). For example:

1. Sigmoid should not be removed. Values in the sigmoid saturation domain are not sensitive to errors, but values near 0 are highly sensitive. Removing sigmoid will prevent accurate reflection of quantization errors within different domains.

2. NMS should be removed. Small errors can lead to completely different NMS results, making the output incomparable.

The debug tool supports automatic replacement of sort/topk/argmax. Besides these operators, you need to check if there are similar operators in the model and post-processing, and delete all parts after these operators.

Use the `auto_find_bad_case` interface in the debugging tool to find bad cases. Refer to the following:

`from horizon_plugin_profiler.model_profilerv2 import QuantAnalysis # 1. Initialize the quantization analysis object qa = QuantAnalysis(float_net, calibration_model, "fake_quant") # 2. Find bad cases. If there are too many data, you can specify num_steps to find bad cases in a subset of the data qa.auto_find_bad_case(dataloader)`

After finding the bad cases, check the result file. For each output of the model, the debug tool will find the worst sample under each error metric. In the example below, the model has three outputs. The first table shows the worst sample index for each output under each metric, the second table shows the corresponding errors, and the third table shows the worst bad case index under the current metric for all outputs.

`The bad case input index of each output: Name/Index COSINE L1 ATOL ------------ -------- ---- ------ 0-0 4 1 1 0-1 14 1 1 0-2 12 9 9 The metric results of each badcase: Name/Index COSINE L1 ATOL ------------ -------- --------- --------- 0-0 0.969289 0.996721 11.9335 0-1 0.974127 0.0404785 12.6742 0-2 0.450689 1.08771 20.821809 The bad case input index of the worst output: metric dataloader index -------- ------------------ COSINE 11 L1 17 ATOL 0`
Attention

We can only debug the outputs related to accuracy drop. Different model outputs require different error metrics. Typically, L1 / ATOL / COSINE are suitable for most issues. L1 and ATOL is suitable for tasks requiring absolute error reflection, such as bbox regression, while COSINE is suitable for tasks requiring overall distribution error reflection, such as classification.

#### #Layer-by-Layer Comparison

Layer-by-layer comparison uses the bad cases to run the floating-point model and the calibration model separately, comparing the output of each layer. This can be done using the compare_per_layer interface in the debug tool. This method is suitable for detailed accuracy analysis. If the accuracy drop is not significant, you can skip this step and analyze it later with sensitivity results.

`from horizon_plugin_profiler.model_profilerv2 import QuantAnalysis # 1. Initialize the quantization analysis object qa = QuantAnalysis(float_net, calibration_model, "fake_quant") # 2. Find bad cases. If there are too many data, you can specify num_steps to find bad cases in a subset of the data qa.auto_find_bad_case(dataloader) # 3. Run the model with bad cases to get information on each layer qa.run() # 4. Compare the information of each layer qa.compare_per_layer()`

The results of the layer-by-layer comparison can be viewed in generated text files. In the text file, you can see where the error starts to magnify from top to bottom.

`| | mod_name | base_op_type | analy_op_type | shape | quant_dtype | qscale | Cosine | MSE | L1 | KL | SQNR | Atol | Rtol | base_model_min | analy_model_min | base_model_max | analy_model_max | base_model_mean | analy_model_mean | base_model_var | analy_model_var | max_atol_diff | max_qscale_diff | | | | 0 | backbone.quant | horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization.stubs.QuantStub | horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.QuantStub | torch.Size([4, 3, 512, 960]) | qint16 | 0.0078125 | 0.9999999 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | inf | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | -1.0000000 | -1.0000000 | 0.9843750 | 0.9843750 | -0.1114422 | -0.1114422 | 0.1048462 | 0.1048462 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | | 1 | backbone.mod1.0 | torch.nn.modules.conv.Conv2d | horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv_bn2d.ConvBN2d | torch.Size([4, 32, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0003464 | 0.4019512 | 0.4977255 | 0.4296696 | 0.0115053 | -0.3768753 | 14.2325277 | 5343133.5000000 | -5.9793143 | -15.0439596 | 8.7436047 | 17.3419971 | 0.1503869 | 0.0484397 | 0.4336909 | 0.3707855 | 14.2325277 | 41088.2696619 | | 2 | backbone.mod1.1 | torch.nn.modules.batchnorm.BatchNorm2d | torch.nn.modules.linear.Identity | torch.Size([4, 32, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0003464 | 0.9999998 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | inf | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | -15.0439596 | -15.0439596 | 17.3419971 | 17.3419971 | 0.0484397 | 0.0484397 | 0.3707855 | 0.3707855 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | | 3 | backbone.mod2.0.head_layer.conv.0.0 | torch.nn.modules.conv.Conv2d | horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv_bn2d.ConvBNReLU2d | torch.Size([4, 64, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0004594 | 0.5790146 | 49.3001938 | 4.0790396 | 0.0415040 | 0.3848250 | 164.3788757 | 4046676.7500000 | -164.3788757 | 0.0000000 | 140.9307404 | 25.1951389 | -0.5375993 | 0.2460073 | 53.5661125 | 0.2699530 | 164.3788757 | 357789.3997821 | | 4 | backbone.mod2.0.head_layer.conv.0.1 | torch.nn.modules.batchnorm.BatchNorm2d | torch.nn.modules.linear.Identity | torch.Size([4, 64, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0004594 | 0.7092103 | 0.3265578 | 0.2332140 | 0.0003642 | 3.0239849 | 17.1071243 | 1.0000000 | -17.1071243 | 0.0000000 | 25.1951389 | 25.1951389 | 0.0127933 | 0.2460073 | 0.6568668 | 0.2699530 | 17.1071243 | 37235.6102222 | | 5 | backbone.mod2.0.head_layer.conv.0.2 | torch.nn.modules.activation.ReLU | torch.nn.modules.linear.Identity | torch.Size([4, 64, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0004594 | 1.0000001 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | inf | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 25.1951389 | 25.1951389 | 0.2460073 | 0.2460073 | 0.2699530 | 0.2699530 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | | 6 | backbone.mod2.0.head_layer.short_add | horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.quantized.functional_modules.FloatFunctional.add | horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.conv_bn2d.ConvBNAddReLU2d | torch.Size([4, 32, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0004441 | 0.5653002 | 1.6375992 | 0.4214573 | 0.0008538 | 1.6659310 | 39.9804993 | 1.0000000 | -39.9804993 | 0.0000000 | 19.6796150 | 19.6796150 | 0.0330326 | 0.4544899 | 2.4056008 | 0.5625318 | 39.9804993 | 90017.7454165 | | 7 | backbone.mod2.0.head_layer.relu | torch.nn.modules.activation.ReLU | torch.nn.modules.linear.Identity | torch.Size([4, 32, 256, 480]) | qint16 | 0.0004441 | 1.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | inf | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 | 19.6796150 | 19.6796150 | 0.4544899 | 0.4544899 | 0.5625318 | 0.5625318 | 0.0000000 | 0.0000000 |`
Attention

After finding the operators with significant accuracy drop, first check base_model_min / base_model_max / analy_model_min / analy_model_max to confirm if there are substantial errors in the extreme values.

1. Significant errors in min / max values: This indicates that the output range of the operator in the floating-point model significantly exceeds the range obtained from calibration. Check the scale of the operator and calculate the maximum value obtained from calibration using the dtype and scale. For instance, if the scale is 0.0078 and the dtype is int8, then the maximum value should be 0.0078 × 128 = 0.9984. Compare this with base_model_max and analy_model_max. Reasons for a very small scale may include: unreasonable calibration data (too little calibration data or biased distribution resulting in an excessively small output range), fixed scale not set, shared module etc.

2. No significant errors in min / max values: Similarly, calculate the calibration maximum value as described in point 1, compare it with base_model_max and analy_model_max to confirm that the output range of the operator in the floating-point model does not significantly exceed the range obtained from calibration. These issues may be caused by insufficient resolution of the quantization type or an excessively large numerical range.

   a. Check if the current quantization dtype matches the numerical range. Generally, if the maximum value exceeds 10, it is not recommended to use int8 quantization.

   b. Identify why the calibration get a large numerical range. The reason may be outliers or unreasonable settings.

#### #Calculating Quantization Sensitivity

This step evaluates the impact of quantization nodes on model accuracy. The sensitivity interface in the debug tool can be used to get quantization sensitivity. The specific evaluation method is to use badcase as the model input, individually enabling each quantization node, and comparing the error between the calibration model and the floating-point model. The error measurement metric is the same as the one used when finding badcase.

`from horizon_plugin_profiler.model_profilerv2 import QuantAnalysis # 1. Initialize the quantization analysis object qa = QuantAnalysis(float_net, calibration_model, "fake_quant") # 2. Find bad cases. If there are too many data, you can specify num_steps to find bad cases in a subset of the data qa.auto_find_bad_case(dataloader) # 3. Run the model with bad cases to get information on each layer qa.run() # 4. Compare the information of each layer qa.compare_per_layer() # 5. Calculate quantization sensitivity qa.sensitivity()`

In the results of quantization sensitivity, operators ranked higher have a greater impact on model accuracy and need to be set to a higher precision data type.

The sensitive_type column has two values: weight and activation, representing the cases of enabling only the weight quantization node or the output quantization node of the operator, respectively.

`op_name sensitive_type op_type L1 quant_dtype --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------- ------------ bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.transformer.decoder.layers.5.cross_attn.quant activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.QuantStub'> 1.59863 qint8 bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.transformer.decoder.layers.5.norm3.var_mean.pre_mean activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.functional_modules.FloatFunctional'> 1.52816 qint16 bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.ref_pts_quant activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.QuantStub'> 1.16427 qint8 bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.fps_quant activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.stubs.QuantStub'> 1.13563 qint8 bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.transformer.decoder.mem_bank_layer.emb_fps_queue_add activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.functional_modules.FloatFunctional'> 1.11997 qint8 bev_stage2_e2e_dynamic_head.head.transformer.decoder.mem_bank_layer.temporal_norm2.weight_mul activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.functional_modules.FloatFunctional'> 1.09876 qint8`
Attention

Even for very quantization-unfriendly models, some operators should have relatively low quantization sensitivity. Therefore, in a normal sensitivity table, the sensitivity should vary, with the last few operators' sensitivities near to zero. If the errors for the last few operators are large, consider whether there are incorrect post-processing operations, such as NMS, that have not been thoroughly removed.

You need to use a sensitivity template to set the qconfig. See the QConfig in Detail section for detailed usage. If the model has multiple outputs, each output will generate a corresponding sensitivity table. You can select the sensitivity tables corresponding to several outputs with large difference and set the sensitivity template. Below is an example of setting the top 20% most sensitive operators to int16 according to 2 sensitive tables in an int8/int16 mixed precision tuning. The total number of int16 is the union of the top 20% int16 operators in the two tables. Adjust the int16 ratio continuously until you find the minimal int16 ratio that meets the accuracy requirements.

`qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( sensitive_op_calibration_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter(table1, ratio=0.2), sensitive_op_calibration_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter(table2, ratio=0.2), default_calibration_qconfig_setter, ) ) qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( sensitive_op_qat_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter(table1, ratio=0.2), sensitive_op_qat_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter(table2, ratio=0.2), default_qat_qconfig_setter, ) )`

When adjusting the number of INT16 operations in a model with a large number of outputs, you can refer to the following guidelines for adjustment:

1. Binary ratio adjustment. All sensitivity tables are set to the same ratio, adjusted with binary search method. After meeting the precision requirements, the proportion of high precision in individual sensitivity tables can be reduced, which can also be adjusted using with binary search method.

2. Adjust based on computation cost. The last column of the sensitivity table, flops, indicates the computation cost of each operator. Generally, computation cost correlates with latency. Assigning high precision data types to operators with high computation cost may have a greater impact on latency. If the goal is to optimize performance, you can consider keeping computationally intensive operators in low-precision formats from bottom to up. For example, in the case below, assuming QAT accuracy is sufficient, head.layers.0.camera_encoder.3 layer can be kept in int8 format.

`op_name sensitive_type op_type ATOL dtype flops ---------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ------- ------------------ head.layers.0.camera_encoder.0 activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.linear.LinearReLU'> 55.0853 qint8 21504(0.00%) head.layers.0.camera_encoder.3 activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.linear.LinearReLU'> 46.2698 qint8 1998323712(5.28%) head.layers.0.camera_encoder.1 activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.linear.LinearReLU'> 42.0853 qint8 21504(0.00%) head.layers.0.camera_encoder.2 activation <class 'horizon_plugin_pytorch.nn.qat.linear.LinearReLU'> 37.0853 qint8 21504(0.00%) ...`

Currently, there is no interface to set fp16 based on sensitivity in bulk. You need to set a small number of fp16 based on the int16 sensitivity results using ModuleNameQconfigSetter. Below is an example of setting the top 1 most sensitive int16 operator to fp16 in int16/fp16 mixed precision optimization.

`module_name_to_qconfig = { "op_1": get_qconfig(in_dtype=torch.float16, weight_dtype=torch.float16, out_dtype=torch.float16), } qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( ModuleNameQconfigSetter(module_name_to_qconfig), calibration_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter, ) ) qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( ModuleNameQconfigSetter(module_name_to_qconfig), qat_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qconfig_setter, ) )`

S100P has limited floating-point compute power. If fp16 is not absolutely necessary, try to use int8/int16 mixed precision tuning. When the all-int16 model cannot meet the accuracy requirements, introduce a small number of fp16 operators into the all-int16 model.

Two scenarios in which the all-int16 model fail to meet accuracy standards:

1. Dual int16 needed: This manifests as certain operators having high sensitivity under both activation and weight sensitivity types. Setting weight and activation to int16 meets the accuracy requirements. Since S100P does not support using int16 for both activation and weight simultaneously, adjust the floating-point model to make one of them more quantization-friendly. Common methods include increasing weight decay and adding normalization operators.

2. Dual int16 not needed: This manifests as certain operators having high sensitivity under either activation or weight sensitivity type, generally due to plugin usage issues or certain operators requiring fixed scale settings. Accuracy debugging can find specific problems.

### #INT8 / INT16 / FP16 Mixed Precision Tuning

Before performing int8/int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning, you should have completed int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning. Reuse the fp16 configuration from int16/fp16 mixed precision tuning and perform accuracy debugging based on the int8/fp16 mixed calibration model. Refer to the accuracy debugging methods in the previous section, continuously adjusting the int16 ratio until you find the minimal int16 ratio that meets the accuracy requirements.

Below is an example of setting the top 1 most sensitive int16 operator to fp16 and the top 20% most sensitive int8 operators to int16 in int8/int16/fp16 mixed precision optimization.

`module_name_to_qconfig = { "op_1": get_qconfig(in_dtype=torch.float16, weight_dtype=torch.float16, out_dtype=torch.float16), } qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( ModuleNameQconfigSetter(module_name_to_qconfig), sensitive_op_8bit_weight_16bit_act_calibration_setter(table, ratio=0.2), default_calibration_qconfig_setter, ) ) qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_input, qconfig_setter=( ModuleNameQconfigSetter(module_name_to_qconfig), sensitive_op_8bit_weight_16bit_act_qat_setter(table, ratio=0.2), default_qat_qconfig_setter, ) )`

## #S600 Mixed Precision Tuning

Attention

1. In S600 mixed precision tuning process, the use of the precision tuning tool is the same as that of S100/S100P. It is recommended to read the S100/S100P Mixed Precision Tuning section first.
2. FP16 is configured using `QconfigSetter`. It is suggested to read the QconfigSetter section first.

S600 offers enhanced floating-point computing power and supports FP16 operations for non-gemm operators. In most cases, you only need to set non-gemm operators to FP16 and adjust the proportion of int8 and int16 used by gemmm operators (such as conv/convtranspose/linear/matmul) to obtain a quantization model that meets the required accuracy. This simplifies the precision tuning process. The tuning methods and tools used are the same as for J6E/M mixed-precision tuning and are not detailed here.

### #Tuning Pipeline

Similar to the S100/S100P mixed-precision tuning process, the S600 mixed-precision tuning process also starts with a relatively high-precision configuration. We recommend starting mixed-precision tuning with the gemm operator input set to double int16 and other operators set to FP16.

1. After confirming that the gemm operator input set to double int16 and other operators set to FP16 meets the accuracy requirements, maintain FP16 for other operators and perform mixed-precision tuning for the gemm operator input set to int8. If the accuracy is not satisfactory, perform mixed-precision tuning for the gemm operator input set to int8/int16, gradually increasing the proportion of int16 from all int8. During this stage, you need to balance accuracy and performance, finding the quantization configuration that maximizes performance while maintaining accuracy.

2. If the precision of the gemm operator input double int16 and other operators FP16 does not meet the requirements, maintain the gemm operator input at double int16 and perform targeted processing on non-gemm operators. The processing method is described below. Then, optimize the gemm operator input to int8 precision, fix the FP16 precision of other operators and the configuration of targeted processing, and adjust the gemm operator input ratio to int16 using the int8/int16 mixed precision tuning method in 1.

### #gemm input double int16 + other FP16 Tuning

QconfigSetter is configured as follows:

`from horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization import prepare, PrepareMethod, get_qconfig from horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization.qconfig_setter import * setter = QconfigSetter( reference_qconfig=get_qconfig(), templates=[ ModuleNameTemplate({"": torch.float16}), # all ops float16 output ConvDtypeTemplate(input_dtype=qint16, weight_dtype=qint16), # conv input and weight both int16 MatmulDtypeTemplate(input_dtypes=qint16), # matmul two inputs int16 ], ) qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_inputs, qconfig_setter=setter, method=PrepareMethod.JIT_STRIP, )`

When the current configuration does not meet the accuracy requirements, we also rely on the debugging results of the precision tuning tool. Observing the operators with the highest sensitivity ranking, there are two situations:

1. Two inputs of gemm operators set int16 does not meet the requirements. For the gemm operator, setting two inputs both int16 solves most cases. If a gemm operator uses int16 inputs but still exhibits high sensitivity, consider whether the input needs to be set fixed scale.

2. Non-gemm operators do not meet FP16 precision standards. Compared to int16, FP16 can represent a wider range of values, but this sacrifices some precision. Currently, the main cases where FP16 precision is insufficient are:

- Coordinate-related calculations, such as the grid input of the gridsample operator, have their numerical precision impact the selection of sampling points. Even a slightly off sampling point can significantly impact the final result. Therefore, it is recommended to use int16 for coordinate-related calculations, and if necessary, set a fixed scale;

- Linear transformation operators, such as mul, can be scaled before and after the transformation. A typical example is the norm operator, where the output value range of the mul operation is particularly large, exceeding the FP16 range and causing truncation. In this case, it is recommended to scale the operator input by multiplying it by a factor to reduce the input range. The framework automatically scales the FP16 configuration of the layernorm operator. If you encounter other similar cases, consider using scaling.

- Nonlinear transformation operators, such as sigmoid, cannot be restored to their pre-scaling values after their inputs and outputs are scaled. For example, after the input of a sigmoid operator is scaled, its output cannot be restored to its pre-scaling value. In this case, we recommend using FP32.

Attention

If fp32 is not strictly required, we recommend using int8 / int16 / fp16 mixed-precision tuning whenever possible.

### #gemm input int8/int16 + other FP16 Tuning

Before performing mixed-precision tuning for gemm inputs with int8/int16 and other operators with FP16, you should have completed mixed-precision tuning for gemm inputs with double int16 and other operators with FP16. Reuse the qualified configuration or modifications from the gemm input configuration with double int16 and other operators with FP16, and perform precision tuning on the gemm input configuration with int8 and other operators with FP16. Refer to the precision tuning method in the previous section and continuously adjust the int16 ratio of gemm operators until you find the minimum int16 ratio that meets the precision requirements.

QconfigSetter is configured as follows:

`from horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization import prepare, PrepareMethod, get_qconfig from horizon_plugin_pytorch.quantization.qconfig_setter import * setter = QconfigSetter( reference_qconfig=get_qconfig(), templates=[ ModuleNameTemplate({"": torch.float16}), # all ops float16 output ConvDtypeTemplate(input_dtype=qint8, weight_dtype=qint8), # conv input and weight both int8 MatmulDtypeTemplate(input_dtypes=qint8), # matmul two inputs int8 SensitivityTemplate( # If the high-sensitivity feat or weight is configured as int8, change it to int16 sensitive_table=..., topk_or_ratio=..., ), ], ) qat_model = prepare( model, example_inputs=example_inputs, qconfig_setter=setter, method=PrepareMethod.JIT_STRIP, )`
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